- Living with a smoker.
- Having parents or friends who smoke.
- Approval of smoking by parents.
- Having a strained relationship with parents.
- Poor academic performance-leaving school.
- Lack of church attendence.
- Low self esteem or self worth.
- For boys, high levels of aggression and rebelliousness and for girls, preoccupation with weight and body image.
- Co-morbid psychiatric disorder.
- Availability of cigarettes.
